Gondvana - the Mighty Kingdom in the olden days

The Culture of Gonds
The main diety of the Gonds is the pantheon - a single Temple which bows to all the Gods and Culture of the World. The Gond Clan is known as Persa Pen who protects all Clan Members.. They believe in the equality of the human beings without the discrimination of higher and lower society. This transparency can be clearly seen as they themselves have inclusions of Bhils and Santals in their tribes. They also worship the most ancient spirits as Gonds speak the unwritten languages related to Dravidians.
Each village of Gonds a Village Guardian and a Village Mother who are worshipped during all regular festivals. The Spirits both good and bad are supposed to be inhabit hills, villages, lakes and rivers. Sacrifices are made by the Village Priests - Devari - in most of the festivals. Most aspects of the Gond life are filled with animal sacrifices. But then most of the Gonds festivals are related to agriculture.
Most of the Gonds live in a Village with a Headman known as Mahji or Patel. A Village Council is also there which divides the Gonds into Castes called Ahir (Cowherds), Agaria (Blacksmith), Dhuli (Drummers) and Pardhan (bard and singers). A Gond Village has typically several hamlets. Houses made of hatch and mud have a verandah (outer space), living room, kitchen, special room for women, shrine room for Gods and a Guest Room. Gonds welcome visitors with tobacco leaves, fruits or other small gifts.
Gondvana - the Mighty Kingdom in the olden days still stands with the ruins of the Kingdom in its sand. From the 15th century to the 18th century, this region called Gondwana was the home to the Gonds. The Gondwana Land gave its name to the present day Africa, South America, Australia, India Sub Continent and Antarctica. The Gonds lost their lives in saving their lands from the then upcoming tribe called the Banjaras. Most of the Gonds describe themselves as hill people or as Koi or Koitur.
The inheritors of the Dravidian Culture - the Gonds are the simple tribes with a high thinking of non - egaliriatism. Mainly found in Central India the Gonds preach the Gods path and do agriculture as their main work.
Apart from Madhya Pradesh, Gonds can be found in Chattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa. They are the largest Tribe in India, South Asia, and perhaps the world with nine million people (out of which four million resides in India). They speak language related to Telgu and Dravidian language. The spoken languages are generalized as Gondi and Hindi. They practice agriculture growing cereals. Herding cattles is also a part of their livelihood.

Gond Girl
The girl in this photograph looks like any of the modern girls who like traditional dresses. Though not to a large extent but the Gonds have changed themselves with the changing times.

The Home
It looks like any regular house in a small village. The Gonds have begun to live in the wooden houses from quite a time, another big change which is visual in the living ways of the Gonds.

Bodos Culture : a part of Assamese Culture.

Bodos are the true ethnic Tribal Community of Assam - the sub branch of the Bodo - Kachari Clan. The Bodos are the largest among the Bodo - Kachari Clan. They are also the most progressive. Bodos reside in the Brahamaputra valley and are considered to be largest ethnic and linguistic group of tribes. The Bodos speak Tibeto - Burmese language. Nowadays the Bodos have accepted the Devnagari Language. Bodos have a language of their own called Deodahi.
Earlier the Bodos were cut off from other parts of the Country due to their geographical area and weather conditions. This lead to the their lack in education and economy. This was one of the reasons of the arousal of the Bodoland Movement. The movement took its wings in the late 80's under the leadership of Upendra Nath Brahma who is now regarded as the Father of Bodos. A Bodoland Territorial Council was formed to save the Culture, language and identity of Bodos. It was headed by All Bodo Students Union (ABSU) and an armed militant group called the Bodo Liberation Tigers (BLT). Following the movement a settlement was reached between the Government and the Bodos. A land was given to the Bodos which came to be known as Bodoland.
In 2006, the former BLT members, formed an alliance with Indian National Congress under the leadership of Hagrama Mohilary and came into power in Dispur District Of Assam. Still in Assam, illegal immigrants occupy tribal belts.
Tea Plantation

One of the major income sources, the Bodos turn to working in tea estates. The women working in assam tea estates are mostly bodos.
Sericulture

Silk rearing, the Bodos take special interest in this work. Not only it is a source of livelihood, it is also one of the best means to know about the best quality silk.
The Culture of Bodos

Bodos in their ancient years used to pray their forefathers. Today they have changed significantly - they have accepted Hinduism as their main religion. They practice a Culture known as Bathouism. The plant Siju is taken for the worship as a symbol of Bathou Symbol. For the worship, a clean ground near the home or the courtyard of the home is taken. One pair of Betelnut called Goi betel leaf called pathwi is used as offering. The offering includes rice, milk and sugar. For the Kherai Puja which also happens to be the most important of all Pujas, an altar is placed in the rice field. The Bodos do not practice dowry and caste system as per their rules of Brahma Dharma.
The main work of Bodos is tea plantation, silk worm rearing, weaving, pig and poultry farming. They are also good bamboo craftsman. The main festivals of Bodos include Kherai - the colorful function which includes, drumming, singing and dancing (Bagurumba) to the rythmn of the drums. Garja, Hapsa Hatarnai, Awnkham Gwrlwi Janai, Bwisagu and Domashi are the other important festivals. The main cuisines of the Bodos include Narzi, Onla and Oma Bedor.

Mehendi ceremony in India are considered to be a sacred and sanctified ritual

Weddings in India are considered to be a sacred and sanctified ritual. They are long ritualistic and elaborate affair with lots of pre-wedding, wedding, post wedding ritual. The occasion of Mehendi is one of the most important pre-wedding rituals. It is fun a filled ritual, which is celebrated mainly by the bride's family. Different regions of the country celebrate the ritual in a different way according to their own marriage customs, rituals, and culture. The celebrations also depend on the wealth and status of the people. The bride's family celebrates Mehendi party for gathering bride’s friends and relatives for blessing the bride as well as for amusement.
The ceremony is mostly held at bride's place or sometimes in a banquet hall on the eve of the marriage ceremony or few days before the marriage. On this occasion a professional henna designer or some relative applies mehendi to the bride’s hands and feet. There are few places in India where it is a ritual that the first motif of henna or mehendi is applied by the bride’s sister-in-law whereas there are some places where the first mehendi motif is said to be auspicious if applied by bride’s mother.
The Mehendi or henna motif is not only the adoration of the bride rather it epitomizes her transformation from a virgin girl to a temptress for her husband. As per Kama Sutra, henna is one of the sixty four arts of women. Popular motifs of the bridal mehendi are conchshell, flowers, Kalash, peacock, doli and baraat patterns. The intricate motifs of the bridal henna also hide the husband’s name. It is said that the husband’s name in the intricate henna motifs is made for the groom who has to find out his name in his bride’s mehendi as an evidence of his sharp eyes and active brain to impress his girl.

Mehendi function is usually organized with the sangeet function. So, it has a festive feel to it with the women dancing and singing traditional songs on the mehendi ritual. The bride is dressed in light color clothes with light jewelry. According to the custom the bride must not step out of the house after the mehendi ritual until the wedding day. It is believed that the darker and deeper the henna stains the more the husband and the in-laws will love her bride. The ritual of mehendi signifies the strength and power of love in a marriage so it is regarded good omen for the would-be bride. It is said that the long the bride retains the mehendi, the more auspicious would be her future

Indian culture celebrates marriage as a sacrament

The Indian culture celebrates marriage as a sacrament (Sanskara), a rite enabling two individuals to start their journey in life together. In a Hindu wedding, the multiplicity of creation becomes possible when spirit (Purush) unites with matter (Prakritti). The Hindu wedding lays emphasis on three essential values: happiness, harmony, and growth.
The institution of marriage can be traced back to Vedic times. The ceremony should be held on a day in the "bright half" of the northern course of the sun.
Months before the wedding an engagement ceremony known as Mangni is held. This is to bless the couple, who are then given gifts of jewelry and clothing by their new family.
Jaimala (Exchange of Garlands)
The couple exchanges garlands as a gesture of acceptance of one another and a pledge to respect one another as partners.
Madhupak (Offering of Yogurt and Honey)
The bride's father offers the groom yogurt and honey as the expression of welcome and respect.
Kanyadan (Giving Away of the Bride)
The father of the bride places her hand in the groom's hand requesting him to accept her as an equal partner. The concept behind Kanyadan is that the bride is a form of the goddess Lamxi and the groom is Lord Narayana. The parents are facilitating their union.
Havan (Lighting of the Sacred Fire)
The couple invokes Agni, the god of Fire, to witness their commitment to each other. Crushed sandalwood, herbs, sugar rice and oil are offered to the ceremonial fire.
Rajaham (Sacrifice to the Sacred Fire)
The bride places both her hands into the groom's and her brother then places rice into her hands. Together the bride and groom offer the rice as a sacrifice into the fire.
Gath Bandhan (Tying of the Nuptial Knot)
The scarves placed around the bride and groom are tied together symbolizing their eternal bond. This signifies their pledge before God to love each other and remain faithful.
Mangalphera (Walk Around the Fire)
The couple makes four Mangalpheras around the fire in a clockwise direction representing four goals in life: Dharma, religious and moral duties; Artha, prosperity; Kama, earthly pleasures; Moksha, spiritual salvation and liberation. The bride leads the Pheras first, signifying her determination to stand first beside her husband in all happiness and sorrow.
Saptapardi (Seven Steps Together)
The bride and groom walk seven steps togehr to signify the beginning of their journey through life together. Each step represents a marital vow:
First step: To respect and honor each other
Second step: To share each other's joy and sorrow
Third step: To trust and be loyal to each other
Fourth step: To cultivate appreciation for knowledge, values, sacrifice and service
Fifth step: To reconfirm their vow of purity, love family duties and spiritual growth
Sixth step: To follow principles of Dharma (righteousness) Seventh step: To nurture an eternal bond of friendship and love

Jalastnchana (Blessing of the Couple)
The parents of the bride and groom bless the wedded couple by dipping a rose in water and sprinking it over the couple.
Sindhoor (Red Powder)
The groom applies a small dot of vermilion, a powdered red lead, to the bride's forehead and welcomes her as his partner for life. It is applied for the first time to a woman during the marriage ceremony when the bridegroom himself adorns her with it.
Aashirvad (Parental Blessing)
The parents of the bride and groom give their blessings to the couple. The couple touches the feet of their parents as a sign of respect.
Menhdi (Henna Ceremony)
The traditional art of adorning the hands and feet with a paste made from the finely ground leaves of the Henna plant. The term refers to the material, the design, and the ceremony. It is tradition for the names of the bride and groom to be hidden in the design, and the wedding night is not to commence until the groom has found both names. After the wedding, the bride is not expected to perform any housework until her Menhdi has faded away.

Mangalasutra (Thread of Goodwill)
A necklace worn specifically by married women as a symbol of their marriage.

Vedic Marriage Ceremony 13 Steps of a Hindu Wedding Rituals

Vara Satkaarah 
 Reception of the bridegroom and his kinsmen at the entrance gate of the wedding hall where the officiating priest chants a few mantras and the bride's mother blesses the groom with rice and trefoil and applies tilak of vermilion and turmeric powder. 

Madhuparka Ceremony 
Reception of the bridegroom at the altar and bestowing of presents by the bride's father.

 Kanya Dan 
The bride's father gives away his daughter to the groom amidst the chanting of sacred mantras.
 

Vivah-Homa 

The sacred fire ceremony ascertaining that all auspicious undertakings are begun in an atmosphere of purity and spirituality.
 

Pani-Grahan 
The groom takes the right hand of the bride in his left hand and accepts her as his lawfully wedded wife.

Pratigna-Karan 
 The couple walk round the fire, the bride leading, and take solemn vows of loyalty, steadfast love and life-long fidelity to each other.
 

Shila Arohan 
The mother of the bride assists her to step onto a stone slab and counsels her to prepare herself for a new life.

Laja-Homah 
Puffed rice offered as oblations into the sacred fire by the bride while keeping the palms of her hands over those of the groom.

Parikrama or Pradakshina or Mangal Fera 
The couple circles the sacred fire seven times. This aspect of the ceremony legalizes the marriage according to the Hindu Marriage Act as well custom.

Saptapadi 
Marriage knot symbolized by tying one end of the groom's scarf with the bride's dress. Then they take seven steps representing nourishment, strength, prosperity, happiness, progeny, long life and harmony and understanding, respectively.

Abhishek  
Sprinkling of water, meditating on the sun and the pole star.

Anna Praashan 
The couple make food offerings into the fire then feed a morsel of food to each other expressing mutual love and affection.

Aashirvadah 
Benediction by the elders.

Muslim Wedding Traditions :A marriage is a contract between two parties

Muslim Wedding Traditions  
A marriage is a contract between two parties, a man and a woman, made in the presence of witnesses as well as the woman's guardian. It also involves the payment of a dower, the amount of which is agreed between the two parties and become payable by the husband at the time when the contract is made (though the payment may be deferred by mutual consent).
A marriage contract does not need to be written down in order to be valid. But the documentation is important, particularly these days in order to ensure that all future formalities are properly made.
In many Muslim marriages, the wife may not be present when the actual contract is made. However, her father or guardian comes to her with two witnesses and asks her whether she gives him the [verbal] power of attorney [in presence of the two witnesses] to act for her in marrying her to the man concerned and whether she agrees to the amount of dower to be paid to her. When she has given him the power of attorney, he proceeds to complete the marriage contract.
An offer of marriage is made by the woman's father or guardian. Secondly, an acceptance made by the man in the presence of two Muslim witnesses. The witnesses may be required to confirm the actual marriage in front of a judge. In order that their testimony be binding on a Muslim party, they must be Muslims.
The bride is entitled to receive a dower. The dower, a sum of money, in cash or kind, must be specified as being given by the bridegroom to his bride.
Wedding Traditions
Among Muslims, it is the family of the Groom who searches for a suitable Bride.
There are many ceremonies which comprise the marriage process.

The Mangni
The Mangni or engagement ceremony is an exchange of rings. The outfit for the Bride is provided by the Groom's family.
The Manjha Ceremony
The Manjha ceremony is where the Bride is anointed with turmeric paste. This takes place at the Bride's house one or two days before the wedding day. The paste of turmeric, sandalwood and chameli oil are provided by the Groom's family.
Only unmarried women apply this to the bride to be. Henna is applied on her hands and feet. A symbolic token in the form of a spot is also applied to the groom. After this ceremony, the Bride does not leave her house until the wedding. On her wedding day, she is provided her clothing by the Groom's family.
The Groom's Procession
On the wedding day, a procession of friends and relatives accompany the groom from his place to the wedding venue. This is done whether the groom rides on a horse or in a car.
If no concrete covered area is available, a shamiana (large decorated tent) is erected.
The Arrival of the Groom and Guests
The arrival of the groom is accompanied by the beating of drums and playing of musical instruments.
On this arrival, the groom and the brother of the bride exchange a glass of sharbet (a sweetened drink) and money. The sisters of the bride welcome the guests by playfully hitting them with a stick wrapped around flowers.
The wedding Ceremony
Traditionally, the men and women are seated in separate rooms or have a curtain to separate them. The meher, (a compulsory amount of money given to the bride by the groom) is decided upon by elders of both families.
Before reading a selected piece from the Koran (the holy book of the Muslims), witnessed by two male persons and a lawyer or eminent person, the officiating priest will ask the bride if she is happy with the arrangement and whether she agrees to marry the groom. The boy is asked the same.
The marriage is registered (nikaahnama). It is first signed by the groom and then two witnesses. The bride will sign later. The groom is then taken to the women's section. He gives money and gifts to the sisters of the bride. He receives the blessings of the elder woman and offers his salutations. Dinner is served separately to the women and men. The groom's family feasts separately.

After their first meal, the groom and bride are seated together and a long scarf is used to cover their heads while the priest makes them read prayers. The Holy Koran is kept between them and they are allowed to see each other through reflection by mirrors. Dried dates and a sweet dish are served to the guests. The dates have religious significance.
The Rukhsat Ceremony
The farewell by the father of the bride is performed by the father giving her hand to her husband and asking him to protect her always. Final farewells are offered and the couple leaves.
Upon the bride entering her new home, her mother-in-law holds the Koran over her and the groom follows. 

Islamic art, popular cultures and the contemporary SouthAsian

This issue begins with Rabab Zaidi’s commentary (Islamic art: A hidden
revolution), which discusses the diverse artistic and cultural fusion in India
focusing on the development of Islamic aesthetics in the sub‐continent and
beyond. Zaidi’s account spans from the start of the Moghul period miniatures to
present day South Asian diaspora in the UK (Amrit and Kaur Singh). Through a
broad brush review the commentary has references on the influences of Islamic
art in Indian architecture. However, the emphasis is on the dominant Indian and
international philosophical thoughts. The commentary reviews a number of
illuminating artists in India providing some unique and contemporary stylised
examples. I suppose Zaidi’s somewhat unusual and intriguing samples of Islamic
art representations in contemporary India leads to the subtitle of ‘a hidden
revolution’.

Continuing with the theme of Islamic art and culture, the research article section
opens with a presentation of a contemporary urban youth popular culture in the
Muslim world but perhaps with more emphasis on the South Asian diaspora in
the present day Britain. Shamim Miah and Virinder Kalra’s article ‘Muslim Hip‐
Hop: Politicisation of Kool Islam’ takes us to one of the most deprived South
Asian (mainly Bangladeshi and Pakistani) areas of England (in Oldham near
Manchester) where the authors analyse the hyphenated Islamic identities
expressed through musical concerts and in particular what they label as ‘Muslim
Hip Hop’. While there is much currency with Sufi music and Nasheed concerts
within the umbrella of Muslim culture, the extension of such culture though Hip
Hop is certainly an upcoming phenomenon. As such Miah and Kalra’s searh for
‘Kool Islam’ takes into a new discourse which perhaps borders with postmodernity.
Here the authors dig deep into popular culture charting through a
number of sound track and popular artists from the UK and North America. The
post modern aspects of culture, space and technology reverberates well in this
fast beat but carefully researched article where the setting is within apolitical
disaffected youth of somewhat ghettoised Muslim communities in the northwest
of England. The article provides an extensive review of hip hop studies in the
Muslim world. The research transcends into a more politicised discourse through
a micro analysis of the lyrics. This is what may be termed as the ‘re‐politicisation
of the South Asian Muslim culture’ as it is apparent within Muslim diasporic
communities in Europe and in the Middle East, which makes references to Deen,
Jihad, Ummah and to other politicised groups of post Iraq war.
After a commentary and an article on the politicised South Asian popular art and
culture, Anna Claydon brings us the representation of South Asian identity
through contemporary popular British cinema. Claydon launches a two part
series on ‘British South‐Asian Cinema and Identity’ dealing with nostalgia, South‐
Asian diaspora and representation of America. In part 1 (this issue, entitled
‘British South‐Asian Cinema and Identity 1: Nostalgia in the Post‐National:
Contemporary and South‐Asian Diaspora’) Claydon attempts to put forward her
theories and concepts related to South‐Asian identity as constructed through
‘hybridity’ and ‘nostalgia’ apparent in the British films of the last decade.
Discussing through the representations as depicted in the popular film versions
of ‘East is East’ (originally a play by Ayub Khan Din), ‘Anita and Me’ (adapted
from Meera Syal’s novel) and Bend it Like Beckham (A Gurinder Chadha’s film)
Claydon provides a theoretical framework that goes behind contemporary
thinking on diaspora , post‐national cinema and nostalgia. More importantly, the
paper examines the rationales behind the inclusion of ‘iconographies’ and
‘traditional ideologies’ in recent South Asian community based British films. The
paper also discusses the ‘post‐colonial otherness’ and the

‘globalised/postmodernist pastiche cultures’ apparent in the narratives of the
above and other relevant non ‐South Asian western films.
The remainder two regular features include a critical review of the award
winning novel set against the backdrop of Bangladesh’s war of independence in
1971, Tahmina Anam’s ‘A Golden Age’ (John Murray, 2007) and an introduction
to Samina Zaheer’s trans‐cultural painting exhibition to be opened at a newly
established art gallery at Lahore on 16 December 2008.
Tasleem

New Search and Chat Feature:Google+

 Google is trying to become the conversation starter for some by improving its conversation settings. Now one can just start a conversation directly from the search results. For example, if you wish to start a chat about your favorite coffee shop, you just need to search that shop and you can straight away start chatting about it on the share tab.

To make it more user friendly, it goes straight to the post and people can view your comments. If they wish they can even join in. the search can be started just by clicking on the post and this way the viewer can also start a new conversation. To get a better perspective, check this out.

 Earlier Google only connected people to mainstream news via its Spark tab where people could see only general happenings about the topic. Since September, Google has included an option of watching original Google+ work on that topic.

Lately, Google has been focusing on giving a boost to its social network arm by showing posts and links from Google+ on its search tool. This however, is not going down well with others like Twitter as they are at a disadvantage because of this. By its latest move Google is trying harder to make its users more involved with the site.

Different kinds of Tobacco and where they're grown:

Tobacco is grown in 21 states in the United States. Here's a list of the different kinds of tobacco and where they're grown:
Flue-cured
(40% of world tobacco production)

1. Flue-cured is also known as "Bright" and "Virginia" by the world trade. It is used almost entirely in cigarette blends. Some of the heavier leaves may be used in mixtures for pipe smoking. Some English cigarettes are 100% flue-cured.
2. Flue-cured leaf is characterized by a high sugar: nitrogen ratio. This ratio is enhanced by the picking of the leaf in an advanced stage of ripeness, and by the unique curing process which allows certain chemical changes to occur in the leaf.
3. Cured leaves vary from lemon to orange to mahogany in color. The leaves are relatively large with the largest at midstalk. A well grown plant will be topped at a height of 39 to 51 inches with 18-22 harvestable leaves. Yields average around 2200 lbs/A with some in excess of 3000 lbs/A. The leaves are harvested as they mature from the ground up.
4. Flue-cured tobacco is grown in approximately 75 countries from New Zealand to Germany. Major producers in the world are: China, USA, Brazil, India and Zimbabwe. The major exporters are the U.S., Brazil, India and Zimbabwe.
5. Flue-cured is grown in six states in the U.S. - Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Florida. A very small amount is in Alabama. 

Burley
(11% of world production)

1. Burley is light air-cured type derived from the White Burley which arose as a mutant on a farm in Ohio in 1864. Burley is used primarily in cigarette blends. Some of the heavier leaf is sued in pipe blends and also for chewing.
2. Cured burley leaf is characterized by low sugar content and a very low sugar to nitrogen ratio (high nicotine). This is enhanced by high N. fertilizer, harvesting at an early stage of senescence, and the air curing process which allows oxidation of any sugars which may have occurred. Burley has a tremendous capacity to absorb flavorings (25% of its own weight vs. 7-8% for flue-cured).
3. Cured leaves vary in color from light tan to reddish and brown. The leaf should be without yellow patches or fringes.
4. Crops in the field are light green in color. This is particularly true for the midrib and stalk which are creamy- white. The leaves are slightly larger than flue-cured and the plants are generally taller. A typical plant is topped at 20-30 leaves. Average yields are 2500-3000 lbs/A and the plants are stalk cut. The leaves are stripped after curing.
5. Burley is produced in around 55 countries but only a small amounts in over 1/2 of these. The main producers and trades are the U.S., Italy, Korea, Brazil, and Mexico. In the U.S. production is in Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohio, Virginia, North Carolina, West Virginia and Missouri.

Maryland

1. Maryland is another light air-cured type. It is used to some extent in American blended cigarettes and to a greater extent in certain Swiss cigarette blends.
2. Maryland tobacco is extremely fluffy, has good burning properties, low nicotine, and neutral aroma. An example of this lightness: a hoghead of redried burley or flue-cured may weigh 800 lobs but the same hoghead will only contain 600 lbs of Maryland.
3. Maryland tobacco is upright and large leaved like burley but is darker green without the creamy midveins. Yields are slightly less than flue-cured. The tobacco is stalk cut and air-cured like burley. The cured leaf is various shades of brown with yellow and green colors being highly undesirable.
4. Total world production is small and is confined to the U.S. and Italy; and is generally declining.
5. In the U.S., production is in five Maryland counties around Washington, D. C.

Dark air-cured
(20% of world production)

1. The dark air-cured term encompasses a number of types used mainly for chewing, snuff, cigar, and pipe blends. Most of the world production is confined to the tropics.
2. In the U.S. dark air-cured tobacco is produced in Kentucky, Tennessee and Virginia: three types are one-sucker, Green River and Virginia sun-cured. These are heavy type leaves, highly fertilized and topped low to around 10-12 leaves. Dark air-cured leaf is high in nicotine and used in chewing and snuff and some pipe mixtures. The plants are stalk cut.
3. Cigar wrapper, binder and filler are also considered dark air types.
4. Cigar wrapper
5. Connecticut valley today, used to be grown in Florida. (Shade tobacco) hand primed very labor intensive to prevent holes in leaves. Only the finest cigars are hand rolled with wrapper leaf. High production costs and development of homogenized leaf has lend to downfall of production. $4-6.00/lb in 1975

Cigar binder - Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Wisconsin

1. Cigar filler - Pennsylvania, Ohio and Puerto Rico
2. Tobacco which doesn't meet wrapper standards becomes cigar binder (75 cents/lb in 1975) and cigar filler (57 cents/lb in 1975). Cigar filler is heavy bodied and is used to make the case of a cigar. Binder was used as an inner wrapping to form the shape. Like the wrapper, binder has generally been replaced by cheaper homogenized leaf.
3. Oriental
4. (16% of total production)
5. Oriental tobacco gives a mild smoke with very characteristic aroma. Resins, waxes and gum exuded by glandular hairs (trichomes) furnish the aroma. Nicotine is low averaging around 1.0%.
6. Oriental leaf is characterized by its small size, leaf length is 3-10 inches and is 2-3 times the width. Average plant heights are 3-5 ft. The leaves are hand primed, normally sewn on a string, and are dull yellow to rich brown in color. The leaves are sun-cured.
7. Production is centered in the USSR, Turkey, Bulgaria, Greece, Yugoslavia, Romania and Italy.
8. Largest importers are the U.S., Japan and Germany.

Dark-fired
(1% of World)

1. The main use for dark-fired tobacco is in the production of snuff, chewing tobacco, and pipe blends. Dark-fired leaves are subjected to smoke from smoldering wood during the early stage of curing. The type of wood used is very important in determining taste and grown. Cured leaves are very dark in color and are long and heavy bodied. The plants are topped very low 12-14 leaves, and are stalk cut.
2. The only significant world producers are the U.S., Poland, Malawi, Italy and Tanzania. In the U.S., production is in Virginia, Kentucky and Tennessee.
3. Perique
4. Perique is produced in St. James Parrish in South Louisiana. Curing consists of a period of moisture loss in the open, followed by successive periods of high pressure treatment in barrels. The final product is very black with a characteristic odor almost like perfume. It is used in a few specialized pipe mixtures.

Rustica N.
rustica is grown in small fields on heavy and manured soils often under irrigation. The tobacco is stalk cut. Curing usually accomplished by the sun in the field.
When settlers first reached Jamestown they found the Indians smoking Nicotiana rustica which contains about 10% nicotine. In the next 300 years rustica has lost a lot of ground to N. tabacum. At present rustica is grown and used in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, USSR, Indonesia, Afghanistan, Burma, Iran, Iraq, Algeria, parts of Africa and South America. Rustica is smoked primarily in water pipes but is occasionally smoked as cigarettes or chewed.